Generic placeholder image

Current Neuropharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-159X
ISSN (Online): 1875-6190

Systematic Review Article

Drug Treatment of Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling Disorder), Excoriation (Skin-picking) Disorder, and Nail-biting (Onychophagia)

Author(s): Gabriele Sani*, Ida Gualtieri, Marco Paolini, Luca Bonanni, Edoardo Spinazzola, Matteo Maggiora, Vito Pinzone, Roberto Brugnoli, Gloria Angeletti, Paolo Girardi, Chiara Rapinesi and Georgios D. Kotzalidis

Volume 17, Issue 8, 2019

Page: [775 - 786] Pages: 12

DOI: 10.2174/1570159X17666190320164223

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Trichotillomania (TTM), excoriation (or skin-picking) disorder and some severe forms of onychophagia are classified under obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. There are different interacting neurotransmitter systems involved in the pathophysiology of impulse-control disorders, implicating noradrenaline, serotonin, dopamine, opioid peptides and glutamate, hence investigators focused on drugs able to act on these transmitters. Our aim was to critically review the efficacy of the drugs employed in impulse-control disorders.

Methods: We searched for controlled drug trials to treat TTM, excoriation, and/or nail-biting six databases (PubMed, Cochrane, Scopus, CINAHL, PsycINFO/PsycARTICLES, and Web of Science), using the search strategy: (trichotillomania OR “excoriation disorder” OR “face picking” OR “skin picking” OR “hair pulling” OR onychophagia OR “nail-biting”) AND drug treatment on 12 March 2018 for all databases. We followed in our method of identifying relevant literature the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement.

Results: SSRIs and clomipramine are considered first-line in TTM. In addition, family members of TTM patients are often affected by obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. Other drugs used in the treatment of TTM are lamotrigine, olanzapine, N-Acetylcysteine, inositol, and naltrexone.

Conclusion: The treatment of TTM, excoriation disorder and nail-biting is still rather disappointing. Conjectures made from preclinical studies and the relative pathophysiological hypotheses found poor confirmations at a clinical level. There is a need for further studies and the integration of pharmacological and psychotherapeutic. Our results point to the need of integrating personalised medicine principles in the treatment of these patients.

Keywords: Excoriation, drugs, obsessive-compulsive disorder, personalised medicine, PRISMA, trichotillomania.

Graphical Abstract
[1]
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2013.
[2]
Maraz, A.; Hende, B.; Urbán, R.; Demetrovics, Z. Pathological grooming: Evidence for a single factor behind trichotillomania, skin picking and nail biting. PLoS One, 2017, 12(9)e0183806 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183806]. [PMID: 28902896].
[3]
Grant, J.E.; Chamberlain, S.R. Trichotillomania. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2016, 173(9), 868-874. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.15111432]. [PMID: 27581696].
[4]
Grant, J.E.; Odlaug, B.L.; Chamberlain, S.R.; Keuthen, N.J.; Lochner, C.; Stein, D.J. Skin picking disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2012, 169(11), 1143-1149. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12040508]. [PMID: 23128921].
[5]
Malone, A.J.; Massler, M. Index of nailbiting in children. J. Abnorm. Psychol., 1952, 47(2), 193-202. [PMID: 14937953].
[6]
Pennington, L.A. The incidence of nail biting among adults. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1945, 102, 241-244. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.102.2.241].
[7]
Ballinger, B.R. The prevalence of nail-biting in normal and abnormal populations. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1970, 117(539), 445-446. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.117.539.445]. [PMID: 5481208].
[8]
Chamberlain, S.R.; Menzies, L.; Sahakian, B.J.; Fineberg, N.A. Lifting the veil on trichotillomania. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2007, 164(4), 568-574. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.4.568]. [PMID: 17403968].
[9]
Wilhelm, S.; Keuthen, N.J.; Deckersbach, T.; Engelhard, I.M.; Forker, A.E.; Baer, L.; O’Sullivan, R.L.; Jenike, M.A. Self-injurious skin picking: clinical characteristics and comorbidity. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1999, 60(7), 454-459. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v60n0707]. [PMID: 10453800].
[10]
Bakwin, H. Nail-biting in twins. Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 1971, 13(3), 304-307. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1971.tb03265.x]. [PMID: 5093291].
[11]
Williams, W.A.; Potenza, M.N. The neurobiology of impulse control disorders. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr., 2008, 30(Suppl. 1), S24-S30. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-44462008005000003]. [PMID: 18278382].
[12]
Grant, J.E.; Odlaug, B.L.; Chamberlain, S.R. Neural and psychological underpinnings of gambling disorder: A review. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2016, 65, 188-193. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.10.007]. [PMID: 26497079].
[13]
Isobe, M.; Redden, S.A.; Keuthen, N.J.; Stein, D.J.; Lochner, C.; Grant, J.E.; Chamberlain, S.R. Striatal abnormalities in trichotillomania: A multi-site MRI analysis. Neuroimage Clin., 2018, 17, 893-898. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2017.12.031]. [PMID: 29515968].
[14]
Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med., 2009, 6(7)e1000097 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097]. [PMID: 19621072].
[15]
Ninan, P.T.; Rothbaum, B.O.; Marsteller, F.A.; Knight, B.T.; Eccard, M.B. A placebo-controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and clomipramine in trichotillomania. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2000, 61(1), 47-50. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v61n0111]. [PMID: 10695646].
[16]
Swedo, S.E.; Leonard, H.L.; Rapoport, J.L.; Lenane, M.C.; Goldberger, E.L.; Cheslow, D.L. A double-blind comparison of clomipramine and desipramine in the treatment of trichotillomania (hair pulling). N. Engl. J. Med., 1989, 321(8), 497-501. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198908243210803]. [PMID: 2761586].
[17]
Leonard, H.L.; Lenane, M.C.; Swedo, S.E.; Rettew, D.C.; Rapoport, J.L. A double-blind comparison of clomipramine and desipramine treatment of severe onychophagia (nail biting). Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1991, 48(9), 821-827. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810330045007]. [PMID: 1929772].
[18]
Bloch, M.H.; Landeros-Weisenberger, A.; Dombrowski, P.; Kelmendi, B.; Wegner, R.; Nudel, J.; Pittenger, C.; Leckman, J.F.; Coric, V. Systematic review: pharmacological and behavioral treatment for trichotillomania. Biol. Psychiatry, 2007, 62(8), 839-846. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.019]. [PMID: 17727824].
[19]
Swedo, S.E.; Leonard, H.L.; Rapoport, J.L.; Lenane, M.C.; Goldberger, E.L.; Cheslow, D.L. A double-blind comparison of clomipramine and desipramine in the treatment of trichotillomania (hair pulling). N. Engl. J. Med., 1989, 321(8), 497-501. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198908243210803]. [PMID: 2761586].
[20]
Jenike, M.A. Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders: A hidden epidemic. N. Engl. J. Med., 1989, 321(8), 539-541. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198908243210811]. [PMID: 2761591].
[21]
Dawber, R. Self-induced hair loss. Semin. Dermatol., 1985, 4, 53-57.
[22]
Christenson, G.A.; Mackenzie, T.B.; Mitchell, J.E.; Callies, A.L. A placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study of fluoxetine in trichotillomania. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148(11), 1566-1571. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.148.11.1566]. [PMID: 1928474].
[23]
Streichenwein, S.M.; Thornby, J.I. A long-term, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial of the efficacy of fluoxetine for trichotillomania. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1995, 152(8), 1192-1196. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.8.1192]. [PMID: 7625469].
[24]
Stein, D.J.; Chamberlain, S.R.; Fineberg, N. An A-B-C model of habit disorders: hair-pulling, skin-picking, and other stereotypic conditions. CNS Spectr., 2006, 11(11), 824-827. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1092852900014978]. [PMID: 17075554].
[25]
Stein, D.J.; Flessner, C.A.; Franklin, M.; Keuthen, N.J.; Lochner, C.; Woods, D.W. Is trichotillomania a stereotypic movement disorder? An analysis of body-focused repetitive behaviors in people with hair-pulling. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry, 2008, 20(4), 194-198. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10401230802435625]. [PMID: 19034750].
[26]
Cullen, B.A.; Samuels, J.F.; Bienvenu, O.J.; Grados, M.; Hoehn-Saric, R.; Hahn, J.; Liang, K.Y.; Wellen, D.; Dees, M.; Riddle, M.A.; Nestadt, G. The relationship of pathologic skin picking to obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 2001, 189(3), 193-195. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200103000-00010]. [PMID: 11277358].
[27]
Grant, J.E.; Odlaug, B.L.; Kim, S.W. A clinical comparison of pathologic skin picking and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr. Psychiatry, 2010, 51(4), 347-352. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.10.006]. [PMID: 20579505].
[28]
Coric, V.; Taskiran, S.; Pittenger, C.; Wasylink, S.; Mathalon, D.H.; Valentine, G.; Saksa, J.; Wu, Y.T.; Gueorguieva, R.; Sanacora, G.; Malison, R.T.; Krystal, J.H. Riluzole augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open-label trial. Biol. Psychiatry, 2005, 58(5), 424-428. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.043]. [PMID: 15993857].
[29]
Lafleur, D.L.; Pittenger, C.; Kelmendi, B.; Gardner, T.; Wasylink, S.; Malison, R.T.; Sanacora, G.; Krystal, J.H.; Coric, V. N-acetylcysteine augmentation in serotonin reuptake inhibitor refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 2006, 184(2), 254-256. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-005-0246-6]. [PMID: 16374600].
[30]
Grant, J.E.; Odlaug, B.L.; Kim, S.W. N-acetylcysteine, a glutamate modulator, in the treatment of trichotillomania: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2009, 66(7), 756-763. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.60]. [PMID: 19581567].
[31]
Leach, M.J.; Marden, C.M.; Miller, A.A. Pharmacological studies on lamotrigine, a novel potential antiepileptic drug: II. Neurochemical studies on the mechanism of action. Epilepsia, 1986, 27(5), 490-497. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1986.tb03573.x]. [PMID: 3757936].
[32]
Wang, S.J.; Sihra, T.S.; Gean, P.W. Lamotrigine inhibition of glutamate release from isolated cerebrocortical nerve terminals (synaptosomes) by suppression of voltage-activated calcium channel activity. Neuroreport, 2001, 12(10), 2255-2258. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200107200-00042]. [PMID: 11447345].
[33]
Frye, M.A.; Watzl, J.; Banakar, S.; O’Neill, J.; Mintz, J.; Davanzo, P.; Fischer, J.; Chirichigno, J.W.; Ventura, J.; Elman, S.; Tsuang, J.; Walot, I.; Thomas, M.A. Increased anterior cingulate/medial prefrontal cortical glutamate and creatine in bipolar depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2007, 32(12), 2490-2499. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301387]. [PMID: 17429412].
[34]
Grant, J.E.; Odlaug, B.L.; Chamberlain, S.R.; Kim, S.W. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of lamotrigine for pathological skin picking: treatment efficacy and neurocognitive predictors of response. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2010, 30(4), 396-403. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181e617a1]. [PMID: 20531220].
[35]
Stein, D.J.; Mullen, L.; Islam, M.N.; Cohen, L.; DeCaria, C.M.; Hollander, E. Compulsive and impulsive symptomatology in trichotillomania. Psychopathology, 1995, 28(4), 208-213. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000284923]. [PMID: 7480576].
[36]
Stein, D.J.; Lochner, C. Obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders: a multidimensional approach. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am., 2006, 29(2), 343-351. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2006.02.015]. [PMID: 16650712].
[37]
Bohne, A.; Savage, C.R.; Deckersbach, T.; Keuthen, N.J.; Wilhelm, S. Motor inhibition in trichotillomania and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res., 2008, 42(2), 141-150. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.11.008]. [PMID: 17215004].
[38]
Christenson, G.A.; Mansueto, C.S. Trichotillomania: descriptive characteristics and phenomenology.Trichotillomania; Stein, D.J.; Christenson, G.A; Hollander, E., Ed.; American Psychiatric Press, Inc.: Washington, DC, 1999, pp. 1-42.
[39]
Tükel, R.; Keser, V.; Karali, N.T.; Olgun, T.O.; Calikuşu, C. Comparison of clinical characteristics in trichotillomania and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Anxiety Disord., 2001, 15(5), 433-441. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(01)00074-3]. [PMID: 11583075].
[40]
Stein, D.J.; Bouwer, C.; Niehaus, D.J. Stereotypic movement disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1997, 58(4), 177-178. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v58n0407f]. [PMID: 9164434].
[41]
Stein, D.J.; Hollander, E. Low-dose pimozide augmentation of serotonin reuptake blockers in the treatment of trichotillomania. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1992, 53(4), 123-126. [PMID: 1532960].
[42]
Lochner, C.; Stein, D.J. Does work on obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders contribute to understanding the heterogeneity of obsessive-compulsive disorder? Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2006, 30(3), 353-361. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.11.004]. [PMID: 16458405].
[43]
Goodman, W.K.; McDougle, C.J.; Price, L.H.; Riddle, M.A.; Pauls, D.L.; Leckman, J.F. Beyond the serotonin hypothesis: A role for dopamine in some forms of obsessive compulsive disorder? J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1990, 51(8)(Suppl.), 36-43. [PMID: 2199433].
[44]
Shapiro, A.K.; Shapiro, E. Evaluation of the reported association of obsessive-compulsive symptoms or disorder with Tourette’s disorder. Compr. Psychiatry, 1992, 33(3), 152-165. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-440X(92)90024-K]. [PMID: 1591906].
[45]
O’Sullivan, R.L.; Rauch, S.L.; Breiter, H.C.; Grachev, I.D.; Baer, L.; Kennedy, D.N.; Keuthen, N.J.; Savage, C.R.; Manzo, P.A.; Caviness, V.S.; Jenike, M.A. Reduced basal ganglia volumes in trichotillomania measured via morphometric magnetic resonance imaging. Biol. Psychiatry, 1997, 42(1), 39-45. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00297-1]. [PMID: 9193740].
[46]
Keuthen, N.J.; Makris, N.; Schlerf, J.E.; Martis, B.; Savage, C.R.; McMullin, K.; Seidman, L.J.; Schmahmann, J.D.; Kennedy, D.N.; Hodge, S.M.; Rauch, S.L. Evidence for reduced cerebellar volumes in trichotillomania. Biol. Psychiatry, 2007, 61(3), 374-381. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.013]. [PMID: 16945351].
[47]
White, M.P.; Shirer, W.R.; Molfino, M.J.; Tenison, C.; Damoiseaux, J.S.; Greicius, M.D. Disordered reward processing and functional connectivity in trichotillomania: A pilot study. J. Psychiatr. Res., 2013, 47(9), 1264-1272. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.05.014]. [PMID: 23777938].
[48]
Rauch, S.L.; Wright, C.I.; Savage, C.R.; Martis, B.; McMullin, K.G.; Wedig, M.M.; Gold, A.L.; Keuthen, N.J. Brain activation during implicit sequence learning in individuals with trichotillomania. Psychiatry Res., 2007, 154(3), 233-240. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2006.09.002]. [PMID: 17321724].
[49]
Saxena, S. Neurobiology and treatment of compulsive hoarding. CNS Spectr., 2008, 13(9)(Suppl. 14), 29-36. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1092852900026912]. [PMID: 18849909].
[50]
Swedo, S.E.; Rapoport, J.L.; Leonard, H.L.; Schapiro, M.B.; Rapoport, S.I.; Grady, C.L. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism of women with trichotillomania. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1991, 48(9), 828-833. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810330052008]. [PMID: 1929773].
[51]
Stein, D.J.; van Heerden, B.; Hugo, C.; van Kradenburg, J.; Warwick, J.; Zungu-Dirwayi, N.; Seedat, S. Functional brain imaging and pharmacotherapy in trichotillomania. Single photon emission computed tomography before and after treatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2002, 26(5), 885-890. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-5846(01)00334-7]. [PMID: 12369261].
[52]
Van Ameringen, M.; Mancini, C.; Oakman, J.M.; Farvolden, P. The potential role of haloperidol in the treatment of trichotillomania. J. Affect. Disord., 1999, 56(2-3), 219-226. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00019-1]. [PMID: 10701481].
[53]
Van Ameringen, M.; Mancini, C.; Patterson, B.; Bennett, M.; Oakman, J. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of olanzapine in the treatment of trichotillomania. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2010, 71(10), 1336-1343. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.09m05114gre]. [PMID: 20441724].
[54]
Deepmala; Slattery, J.; Kumar, N.; Delhey, L.; Berk, M.; Dean, O.; Spielholz, C.; Frye, R. Clinical trials of N-acetylcysteine in psychiatry and neurology: A systematic review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2015, 55, 294-321. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.015]. [PMID: 25957927].
[55]
Moran, M.M.; McFarland, K.; Melendez, R.I.; Kalivas, P.W.; Seamans, J.K. Cystine/glutamate exchange regulates metabotropic glutamate receptor presynaptic inhibition of excitatory transmission and vulnerability to cocaine seeking. J. Neurosci., 2005, 25(27), 6389-6393. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1007-05.2005]. [PMID: 16000629].
[56]
Cotgreave, I.A. N-acetylcysteine: pharmacological considerations and experimental and clinical applications. Adv. Pharmacol., 1997, 38, 205-227. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1054-3589(08)60985-0]. [PMID: 8895810].
[57]
De Rosa, S.C.; Zaretsky, M.D.; Dubs, J.G.; Roederer, M.; Anderson, M.; Green, A.; Mitra, D.; Watanabe, N.; Nakamura, H.; Tjioe, I.; Deresinski, S.C.; Moore, W.A.; Ela, S.W.; Parks, D.; Herzenberg, L.A.; Herzenberg, L.A. N-acetylcysteine replenishes glutathione in HIV infection. Eur. J. Clin. Invest., 2000, 30(10), 915-929. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2362.2000.00736.x]. [PMID: 11029607].
[58]
Dringen, R.; Hirrlinger, J. Glutathione pathways in the brain. Biol. Chem., 2003, 384(4), 505-516. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/BC.2003.059]. [PMID: 12751781].
[59]
Berk, M.; Copolov, D.; Dean, O.; Lu, K.; Jeavons, S.; Schapkaitz, I.; Anderson-Hunt, M.; Judd, F.; Katz, F.; Katz, P.; Ording-Jespersen, S.; Little, J.; Conus, P.; Cuenod, M.; Do, K.Q.; Bush, A.I. N-acetyl cysteine as a glutathione precursor for schizophrenia--a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Biol. Psychiatry, 2008, 64(5), 361-368. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.03.004]. [PMID: 18436195].
[60]
Hardan, A.Y.; Fung, L.K.; Libove, R.A.; Obukhanych, T.V.; Nair, S.; Herzenberg, L.A.; Frazier, T.W.; Tirouvanziam, R. A randomized controlled pilot trial of oral N-acetylcysteine in children with autism. Biol. Psychiatry, 2012, 71(11), 956-961. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.01.014]. [PMID: 22342106].
[61]
LaRowe, S.D.; Mardikian, P.; Malcolm, R.; Myrick, H.; Kalivas, P.; McFarland, K.; Saladin, M.; McRae, A.; Brady, K. Safety and tolerability of N-acetylcysteine in cocaine-dependent individuals. Am. J. Addict., 2006, 15(1), 105-110. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10550490500419169]. [PMID: 16449100].
[62]
Bloch, M.H.; Panza, K.E.; Grant, J.E.; Pittenger, C.; Leckman, J.F. N-Acetylcysteine in the treatment of pediatric trichotillomania: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled add-on trial. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2013, 52(3), 231-240. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.12.020]. [PMID: 23452680].
[63]
Grant, J.E.; Chamberlain, S.R.; Redden, S.A.; Leppink, E.W.; Odlaug, B.L.; Kim, S.W. N-Acetylcysteine in the treatment of excoriation disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 2016, 73(5), 490-496. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0060]. [PMID: 27007062].
[64]
Benjamin, J.; Agam, G.; Levine, J.; Bersudsky, Y.; Kofman, O.; Belmaker, R.H. Inositol treatment in psychiatry. Psychopharmacol. Bull., 1995, 31(1), 167-175. [PMID: 7675981].
[65]
Camfield, D.A.; Sarris, J.; Berk, M. Nutraceuticals in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD): A review of mechanistic and clinical evidence. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2011, 35(4), 887-895. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.02.011]. [PMID: 21352883].
[66]
Mukai, T.; Kishi, T.; Matsuda, Y.; Iwata, N. A meta-analysis of inositol for depression and anxiety disorders. Hum. Psychopharmacol., 2014, 29(1), 55-63. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hup.2369]. [PMID: 24424706].
[67]
Benjamin, J.; Levine, J.; Fux, M.; Aviv, A.; Levy, D.; Belmaker, R.H. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial of inositol treatment for panic disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1995, 152(7), 1084-1086. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.7.1084]. [PMID: 7793450].
[68]
Kaplan, Z.; Amir, M.; Swartz, M.; Levine, J. Inositol treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Anxiety, 1996, 2(1), 51-52. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1522-7154(1996)2:1<51:AID-ANXI8>3.0.CO;2-G]. [PMID: 9160600].
[69]
Levine, J. Controlled trials of inositol in psychiatry. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 1997, 7(2), 147-155. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-977X(97)00409-4]. [PMID: 9169302].
[70]
Seedat, S.; Stein, D.J. Inositol augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open trial. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1999, 14(6), 353-356. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-199911000-00005]. [PMID: 10565802].
[71]
Nierenberg, A.A.; Ostacher, M.J.; Calabrese, J.R.; Ketter, T.A.; Marangell, L.B.; Miklowitz, D.J.; Miyahara, S.; Bauer, M.S.; Thase, M.E.; Wisniewski, S.R.; Sachs, G.S. Treatment-resistant bipolar depression: a STEP-BD equipoise randomized effectiveness trial of antidepressant augmentation with lamotrigine, inositol, or risperidone. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2006, 163(2), 210-216. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.2.210]. [PMID: 16449473].
[72]
Carlomagno, G.; Unfer, V. Inositol safety: clinical evidences. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci., 2011, 15(8), 931-936. [PMID: 21845803].
[73]
Frey, R.; Metzler, D.; Fischer, P.; Heiden, A.; Scharfetter, J.; Moser, E.; Kasper, S. Myo-inositol in depressive and healthy subjects determined by frontal 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 1.5 tesla. J. Psychiatr. Res., 1998, 32(6), 411-420. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3956(98)00033-8]. [PMID: 9844958].
[74]
Harvey, B.H.; Brink, C.B.; Seedat, S.; Stein, D.J. Defining the neuromolecular action of myo-inositol: Application to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2002, 26(1), 21-32. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-5846(01)00244-5]. [PMID: 11853115].
[75]
Johnson, J.; El-Alfy, A.T. Review of available studies of the neurobiology and pharmacotherapeutic management of trichotillomania. J. Adv. Res., 2016, 7(2), 169-184. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2015.05.001]. [PMID: 26966559].
[76]
Stein, D.J.; Kogan, C.S.; Atmaca, M.; Fineberg, N.A.; Fontenelle, L.F.; Grant, J.E.; Matsunaga, H.; Reddy, Y.C.J.; Simpson, H.B.; Thomsen, P.H.; van den Heuvel, O.A.; Veale, D.; Woods, D.W.; Reed, G.M. The classification of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders in the ICD-11. J. Affect. Disord., 2016, 190, 663-674. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.10.061]. [PMID: 26590514].
[77]
Modi, S.; Rana, P.; Kaur, P.; Rani, N.; Khushu, S. Glutamate level in anterior cingulate predicts anxiety in healthy humans: A magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Psychiatry Res., 2014, 224(1), 34-41. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014.03.001]. [PMID: 25156662].
[78]
Ortiz, A.E.; Gassó, P.; Mas, S.; Falcon, C.; Bargalló, N.; Lafuente, A.; Lázaro, L. Association between genetic variants of serotonergic and glutamatergic pathways and the concentration of neurometabolites of the anterior cingulate cortex in paediatric patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. World J. Biol. Psychiatry, 2016, 17(5), 394-404. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/15622975.2015.1111524]. [PMID: 26505676].
[79]
Ortiz, A.E.; Ortiz, A.G.; Falcon, C.; Morer, A.; Plana, M.T.; Bargalló, N.; Lázaro, L. 1H-MRS of the anterior cingulate cortex in childhood and adolescent obsessive-compulsive disorder: A case-control study. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2015, 25(1), 60-68. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.11.007]. [PMID: 25499604].
[80]
Leppink, E.W.; Redden, S.A.; Grant, J.E. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of inositol in trichotillomania. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2017, 32(2), 107-114. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YIC.0000000000000156]. [PMID: 27824633].
[81]
Raynor, K.; Kong, H.; Chen, Y.; Yasuda, K.; Yu, L.; Bell, G.I.; Reisine, T. Pharmacological characterization of the cloned kappa-, delta-, and mu-opioid receptors. Mol. Pharmacol., 1994, 45(2), 330-334. [PMID: 8114680].
[82]
Codd, E.E.; Shank, R.P.; Schupsky, J.J.; Raffa, R.B. Serotonin and norepinephrine uptake inhibiting activity of centrally acting analgesics: structural determinants and role in antinociception. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1995, 274(3), 1263-1270. [PMID: 7562497].
[83]
Boyadjieva, N.I.; Chaturvedi, K.; Poplawski, M.M.; Sarkar, D.K. Opioid antagonist naltrexone disrupts feedback interaction between mu and delta opioid receptors in splenocytes to prevent alcohol inhibition of NK cell function. J. Immunol., 2004, 173(1), 42-49. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.173.1.42]. [PMID: 15210757].
[84]
Bailey, A.; Hawkins, R.M.; Hourani, S.M.; Kitchen, I. Quantitative autoradiography of adenosine receptors in brains of chronic naltrexone-treated mice. Br. J. Pharmacol., 2003, 139(6), 1187-1195. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0705340]. [PMID: 12871838].
[85]
Johansson, B.A.; Berglund, M.; Lindgren, A. Efficacy of maintenance treatment with naltrexone for opioid dependence: A meta-analytical review. Addiction, 2006, 101(4), 491-503. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01369.x]. [PMID: 16548929].
[86]
Miranda, R., Jr; Treloar Padovano, H.; Gray, J.C.; Wemm, S.E.; Blanchard, A. Real-time assessment of alcohol craving and naltrexone treatment responsiveness in a randomized clinical trial. Addict. Behav., 2018, 83, 72-78. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.01.009]. [PMID: 29395188].
[87]
Mouaffak, F.; Leite, C.; Hamzaoui, S.; Benyamina, A.; Laqueille, X.; Kebir, O. Naltrexone in the treatment of broadly defined behavioral addictions: a review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur. Addict. Res., 2017, 23(4), 204-210. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000480539]. [PMID: 28877518].
[88]
Grant, J.E.; Odlaug, B.L.; Potenza, M.N. Addicted to hair pulling? How an alternate model of trichotillomania may improve treatment outcome. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry, 2007, 15(2), 80-85. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10673220701298407]. [PMID: 17454177].
[89]
Schlosser, S.; Black, D.W.; Blum, N.; Goldstein, R.B. The demography, phenomenology, and family history of 22 persons with compulsive hair pulling. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry, 1994, 6(3), 147-152. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10401239409148996]. [PMID: 7881494].
[90]
Chamberlain, S.R.; Fineberg, N.A.; Blackwell, A.D.; Robbins, T.W.; Sahakian, B.J. Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder and trichotillomania. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2006, 163(7), 1282-1284. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.7.1282]. [PMID: 16816237].
[91]
Li, C.S.; Huang, C.; Yan, P.; Bhagwagar, Z.; Milivojevic, V.; Sinha, R. Neural correlates of impulse control during stop signal inhibition in cocaine-dependent men. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2008, 33(8), 1798-1806. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301568]. [PMID: 17895916].
[92]
Dodman, N.H.; Shuster, L.; White, S.D.; Court, M.H.; Parker, D.; Dixon, R. Use of narcotic antagonists to modify stereotypic self-licking, self-chewing, and scratching behavior in dogs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 1988, 193(7), 815-819. [PMID: 3192459].
[93]
White, S.D. Naltrexone for treatment of acral lick dermatitis in dogs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 1990, 196(7), 1073-1076. [PMID: 2329076].
[94]
Grant, J.E.; Odlaug, B.L.; Schreiber, L.R.; Kim, S.W. The opiate antagonist, naltrexone, in the treatment of trichotillomania: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2014, 34(1), 134-138. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000000037]. [PMID: 24145220].
[95]
Bernardes, C.; Mattos, P.; Nazar, B.P. Skin picking disorder comorbid with ADHD successfully treated with methylphenidate. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr., 2018, 40(1), 111. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2017-2395]. [PMID: 29590267].
[96]
Türkoğlu, S.; Çetin, F.H. Atomoxetine in the treatment of adolescent with trichotillomania and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clin. Neuropharmacol., 2018, 41(2), 84-85. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/WNF.0000000000000273]. [PMID: 29533364].
[97]
Kara, T.; Akaltun, İ. Newly developed skin picking after methylphenidate treatment in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: possible mechanisms. Clin. Neuropharmacol., 2018, 41(1), 28-30. [PMID: 29298167].
[98]
Akaltun, İ.; Kara, T. Atomoxetine-related trichotillomania in a boy with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol., 2017, 27(10), 923. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2017.0113]. [PMID: 29099621].
[99]
Albert, U.; Carmassi, C.; Cosci, F.; De Cori, D.; Di Nicola, M.; Ferrari, S.; Poloni, N.; Tarricone, I.; Fiorillo, A. Role and clinical implications of atypical antipsychotics in anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, trauma-related, and somatic symptom disorders: a systematized review. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2016, 31(5), 249-258. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YIC.0000000000000127]. [PMID: 26974213].
[100]
Centorrino, F.; Fogarty, K.V.; Cimbolli, P.; Salvatore, P.; Thompson, T.A.; Sani, G.; Cincotta, S.L.; Baldessarini, R.J. Aripiprazole: initial clinical experience with 142 hospitalized psychiatric patients. J. Psychiatr. Pract., 2005, 11(4), 241-247. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00131746-200507000-00004]. [PMID: 16041234].
[101]
Lostia, A.M.; Mazzarini, L.; Pacchiarotti, I.; Lionetto, L.; De Rossi, P.; Sanna, L.; Sani, G.; Kotzalidis, G.D.; Girardi, P.; Simmaco, M.; Tatarelli, R. Serum levels of risperidone and its metabolite, 9-hydroxyrisperidone: correlation between drug concentration and clinical response. Ther. Drug Monit., 2009, 31(4), 475-481. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181aa4780]. [PMID: 19531984].
[102]
Musenga, A.; Saracino, M.A.; Sani, G.; Raggi, M.A. Antipsychotic and antiepileptic drugs in bipolar disorder: the importance of therapeutic drug monitoring. Curr. Med. Chem., 2009, 16(12), 1463-1481. [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/092986709787909604]. [PMID: 19355900].
[103]
Bersani, F.S.; Girardi, N.; Sanna, L.; Mazzarini, L.; Santucci, C.; Kotzalidis, G.D.; Sani, G.; De Rossi, P.; Raccah, R.N.; Caltagirone, S.S.; Battipaglia, M.; Capezzuto, S.; Bersani, G.; Girardi, P. Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant bipolar depression: a case report of acute and maintenance efficacy. Neurocase, 2013, 19(5), 451-457. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13554794.2012.690429]. [PMID: 22827578].
[104]
Cocchi, L.; Zalesky, A.; Nott, Z.; Whybird, G.; Fitzgerald, P.B.; Breakspear, M. Transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A focus on network mechanisms and state dependence. Neuroimage Clin., 2018, 19, 661-674. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2018.05.029]. [PMID: 30023172].

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy